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Women and Islam
Women and Islam
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The complex relationship between women and Islam is defined by both Islamic texts and the history and culture of the Muslim world.[1] Some Islamic scholars argue that the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, maintains women's religious and moral equality.[1][2][3] However, sharia (Islamic law) provides for marked differences between women's and men's roles, rights, and obligations, and many Muslim-majority countries allow women fewer rights than men with regard to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education.
Even where these differences are acknowledged, scholars and other commentators vary as to whether they are unjust and whether they are a correct interpretation of religious imperatives. Conservatives argue that differences between men and women are due to different status and responsibilities,[4] while liberal Muslims, Muslim feminists, and others argue that more progressive interpretations of the role of women are more just.
Contents[hide]
1 Historical background
1.1 Status of women in pre-Islamic Arabia
1.2 Evolution of women's status after the introduction of Islam
2 Gender roles
3 Sex segregation
4 Financial rights
4.1 Inheritance
4.2 Right to work
5 Legal matters
5.1 Rights to give testimony
5.2 Diyya
5.3 Punishments
6 Marriage and sexuality
6.1 Age
6.2 Restrictions on marriage
6.3 Marriage contract
6.4 Rights and obligations as wife
6.4.1 "Rebellious wives" and domestic violence
6.5 Polygamy
6.6 Sexuality
6.7 Divorce
7 Restriction of movement and driving
8 Dress code
9 Women in religious life
9.1 Spirituality
9.2 Women in prayer
9.3 Women as religious leaders and scholars
10 Women and politics
10.1 Women as political leaders
10.2 Right to vote
11 Women as slaves and prisoners of war
12 Modern debate and movements relating to the status of women in Islam
12.1 Conservatives
12.1.1 Islamism
12.2 Liberals
12.2.1 Liberal movements within Islam
13 See also
14 Works cited
15 References
16 Further reading
17 External links
//
[edit] Historical background
[edit] Status of women in pre-Islamic Arabia
Main article: Women in Arab societies#Arab women before Islam
In pre-Islamic Arabia, women's status varied widely according to laws and cultural norms of the tribes in which they lived. There were instances where women held high positions of power and authority; there were also patterns of homicidal abuse of women and girls, including female infanticide.[citation needed] It is claimed by some Muslim writers and some scholars of Middle Eastern history that in pre-Islamic Arabia, women could not inherit land or wealth; holdings were usually considered the property of the tribe she was born or married in to. This lack of rights was not particular to Arabia; see legal rights of women in history.
[edit] Evolution of women's status after the introduction of Islam
Islam changed the structure of Arab society and to a large degree unified the people, reforming and standardizing gender roles throughout the region.
The Islamic scholar William Montgomery Watt states:
[S]ome of the early sources ... seem[] to show that Muhammad made things better for women. It appears that in some parts of Arabia, notably in Mecca, a matrilineal system was in the process of being replaced by a patrilineal one at the time of Muhammad. Growing prosperity caused by a shifting of trade routes was accompanied by a growth in individualism. Men were amassing considerable personal wealth and wanted to be sure that this would be inherited by their own actual sons, and not simply by an extended family of their sisters’ sons. This led to a deterioration in the rights of women. At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible - they had no right to own property, were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons. Muhammad improved things quite a lot. By instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, he gave women certain basic safeguards. Set in such historical context the Prophet can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women’s rights. [5]
Islam, both in the form of Quranic teachings and sharia (law), has had a formative influence on the role of women and men in Muslim societies throughout the centuries.[1] John Esposito writes with regard to women in Islam:[1]
The study of women in Islam and Muslim society is complex, reflecting the diverse and varied realities of Muslim women and Muslim societies throughout the ages. Alongside ideals embodied in the Qur'an and the traditions (hadith) of Muhammad, one must look at the actual condition of Muslim women in diverse time periods and sociohistorical contexts. The status of women in Islam was profoundly affected not only by the fact that Islamic belief interacted with and was informed by diverse cultures, but also, and of equal importance, that the primary interpreters of Islamic law and tradition were men (religious scholars or ulama) from those cultures.
Islamic law is the product of Quranic guidelines, as understood by Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), as well as of the interpretations derived from the traditions of Muhammad (hadith), which were also selected by a number of historical Islamic scholars. Such rules were historically often eroded and subverted, claims Esposito, by social custom, poverty, and illiteracy.[citation needed] Furthermore, whether or not Muslims tended to follow these rules was dependent on the prevailing culture, which differed between social classes, local conditions, and regions.[citation needed] Quranic reforms, which in many regions improved the position of women relative to their situation prior to Islam, have often been undermined by the reassertion of tribal customs, or the use of such customs under the name of Islamic law. The spirit of the Quranic reforms may also have been modified by historical or cultural interpretations, reaffirming male dominance and perpetuating gender inequality.[citation needed]
[edit] Gender roles
Main article: Gender roles in Islam
In Islam, relations between the sexes are governed not by the principle of equality but by that of complementarity.[6] In many Islamic societies, there is a division of roles creating a woman’s space in the private sphere of the home and a man’s in the public sphere.[7]Because of this economic reliance of woman on men, the Koran justifies that men should always be in charge over woman.[8][9] A woman's primary responsibility is usually interpreted as fulfilling her role as a wife and mother,[10] whereas a man’s role is to work and be able to financially support his wife and family.[11] The Quran also directs men to honor their mothers[12] and strongly disapproves of parents who feel ashamed over the birth of a daughter instead of a son.[13][14]
[edit] Sex segregation
Main article: Sex segregation and Islam
See also: Purdah
Islam discourages social interaction between men and women when they are alone, but not all interaction between men and women. This is shown in the example of Khadijah, a businesswoman who employed Muhammad and met with him to conduct trade before they were married, and in the example set by his other wives, who taught and counseled the men and women of Medina.
In some Islamic countries, such as Saudi Arabia, sex segregation has been or is strictly enforced. The Taliban treatment of women in Afghanistan was an extreme example of this. Even in countries where the sexes mingle socially, they generally remain segregated within the mosque.
[edit] Financial rights
Islam gives women the right to own, which entitles them to have personal possessions. It also guarantees them to right to inherit a proportion of their father's estate.
A woman, when compared with her husband, is far less burdened with any claims on her possessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband and she keeps her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such properties or out of her income after marriage. Unless she is a slave[vague] she is entitled to the mahr (dowry) which her husband gives her at the time of marriage.[15][16] Women, unlike men, also have the right to be supported financially.[2][17]
However, some of women's financial rights are limited compared to those of men. Women's share of inheritance, as outlined in the Qur'an, is typically less than that of men. Women's right to work is also disputed.
[edit] Inheritance
Main article: Islamic inheritance jurisprudence#Women and inheritance
In Islam, women are entitled the right of inheritance,[18] but often a woman's share of inheritance is less than that of a man's. In general circumstances, Islam allots females half the inheritance share available to males who have the same degree of relation to the deceased.[19][20] Some argue that this difference derives from men's obligation to support their wives financially.[1]
In most Muslim nations, the law of the state concerning inheritance is in accordance with this law.[citation needed]
[edit] Right to work
Whether the Qur'an allows women to work outside the home is disputed. Some Muslims believe that if a woman fulfills her primary responsibility as wife and mother, she may have a career if she wishes and if her husband agrees. Some Muslims believe that verse 4:32 of the Qur'an ("Unto men a fortune from that which they have earned, and unto women a fortune from that which they have earned.") indicates that women have the right to work.[21] As the Qur'an puts the main responsibility of earning on the husband and asks wives to be obedient to their husbands,[22] permission to work is generally considered conditional.[citation needed] Other Muslims believe that regardless of their "primary" responsibility, the Qur'an does allow women to earn money by having occupations outside of the home.[citation needed]
There are also disagreements between Islamic schools of thought about whether women whould be able to enter specific job areas. One major disputed area is that of the judge in a court: Shafi`ites claim that women may hold no judicial office, while Hanafites allow women to act as judges in civil cases only, not criminal ones. These interpretations are based on the above quoted Medinese sura (verse) 4:34.[23]
Even when women have the right to work and are educated, women's job opportunities may in practice be unequal to those of men. In Egypt for example, women have limited opportunities to work in the private sector because women are still expected to put their role in the family first, which causes men to be seen as more reliable in the long term.[24]
Increasingly, women in Muslim countries are seeking employment. In Saudi Arabia the female population in employment has reached 23%, while in Indonesia the rate is 51% [25].
[edit] Legal matters
[edit] Rights to give testimony
In cases of hudud, punishments for serious crimes, 12th-century Maliki jurist Averroes wrote that jurists disagree about the status of women's testimony.[26] According to Averroes, most scholars say that in this case women's testimony is unacceptable regardless of whether they testify alongside male witnesses.[26]. However, he writes that the school of thought known as the Zahiris believe that if two or more women testify alongside a male witness, then (as in cases regarding financial transactions, discussed below), their testimony is acceptable.[26]. the Zahiris opinion is based on the Koran verses in which Mohammad states that "a woman is equal to half of a men man". [27][28][29] In case of witnesses for financial documents, the Qur'an asks for two men or one man and two women.[30][31] It is disputed whether this means that a woman's testimony worth half that of a man either in disputes about financial transactions or as a general matter. Many Muslims believe that the legal value of the testimony of women is half that of a man.[citation needed] On the other hand, Javed Ahmed Ghamidi writes that Islam asks for two women witnesses against one male because this responsibility is not very suited to their temperament, sphere of interest, and usual environment. He argues that Islam makes no claim that woman's testimony is half in other cases.[32] Ibn al-Qayyim also argues that the verse referred to relates to the heavy responsibility of testifying by which an owner of wealth protects his rights, not with the decision of a court; the two are completely different from each other.[33] It is also argued that this command shows that Qur'an does not want to make difficulties for women.[34]
In matters other than financial transactions, scholars differ on whether the Qur'anic verses relating to financial transactions apply.[35] This is especially true in the case of bodily affairs like like divorce, marriage, slave-emancipation and raju‘ (restitution of conjugal rights).[26] According to Averroes, Imam Abu Hanifa believed that their testimony is acceptable in such cases.[26] Imam Malik, on the contrary, believes that their testimony remains unacceptable.[26] For bodily affairs about which men can have no information in ordinary circumstances, such as the physical handicaps of women and the crying of a baby at birth, the majority of scholars hold that the testimony of women alone is acceptable.[26]
In certain situations, the scripture accepts the testimony of a woman as equal to that of a man's and that her testimony can even invalidate his, such as when a man accuses his wife of unchastity.[36]
[edit] Diyya
Main article: Diyya
Diyya is a fine paid by a killer to the victim's next of kin after either intentional or unintentional homicide.[37] Islam does not prescribe any specific amount for diyat nor does it require discrimination in this matter between men and women; the Qur'an has left open its quantity, nature, and other related affairs to be defined by social custom and tradition.[37]
The law of diyya was in force in Arabia before the advent of Islam. Countries such as Saudi Arabia still use the same historical laws, which provide that the fine for unintentional murder of a woman is half of that of a man.[citation needed]
[edit] Punishments
Islamic criminal jurisprudence does not discriminate between genders in punishments for crimes.[citation needed] In case of sexual crimes such as zina (fornication), however, women may be found guilty more easily than men, because of the visible evidence of pregnancy; without a pregancy, four witnesses are required to file a zina case.[38]
The difficulty of prosecuting rapists and the possibility of prosecution for women who allege rape has been of special interest to activists for Muslim women's rights.[39] The overwhelming majority of Muslim scholars believe that there is no punishment for a woman coerced into having sex.[40] According to a Sunni hadith, the punishment for committing rape is death, there is no sin on the victim, nor is there any worldly punishment ascribed to her.[41] However, the stringent requirements for proof of rape under some interpretations of Islamic law, combined with cultural attitudes regarding rape in some parts of the Muslim world, result in few rape cases being reported; even the cases brought forward typically result in minimal punishment for offenders or severe punishment for victims.[42] It can be difficult to seek punishment against rapists, because a zina case cannot be brought without four witnesses, even for rape cases. Some scholars, however, treat rape instead as hiraba (disorder in the land),[43], which does not require four witnesses. The form of punishment and interpretation of Islamic law in this case is highly dependent on the legislation of the nation in question, and/or of the judge.
So-called honor killings (murders, nearly exclusively of women, of persons who are perceived as having brought dishonor to their families) are often identified with Islam, although scholars dispute their Quranic basis. Honor killing is forbidden in mainstream modern interpretations of Islam.[44] Many Muslim scholars and commentators say that honor killings are a cultural practice which is neither exclusive to, nor universal within, the Islamic world.[45][46] However, the practice is strongly associated with the Arabic-, Turkish-, and Urdu-speaking parts of the Muslim world, being most common within Muslim communities around the Mediterranean.[citation needed] Furthermore, most cases involving the practice in non-Muslim areas involve people from Muslim-majority countries.[47][48]
The Quran condemns infanticide[49], especially female infanticide [13][50].
[edit] Marriage and sexuality
A riverside Muslim wedding in India.
Main articles: Islamic marital jurisprudence and Islamic sexual jurisprudence
The Qu'ran considers the love between men and women to be a Sign of God.[51] According to Islamic law (sharia), marriage cannot be forced.[15][52] The Quran mandates that the will of the woman be honoured in marriage, and forbids widow inheritance without the permission of the woman concerned. [53]
[edit] Age
No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage. Children of the youngest age may be married or promised for marriage, although a girl is not handed across to her husband until she is fit for marital sexual relations.[54] It is related that Muhammed himself married Aisha when she was six years old[55] commenced sexual relations with her when she was nine[56]. (See various views at Aisha's age at marriage.)
[edit] Restrictions on marriage
Muslims may not place themselves in a position inferior to that of the followers of other religions.[57] Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men.[58]
[edit] Marriage contract
Main article: Islamic marriage contract
The contract specifies the dowry (mahr) the groom gives to the bride upon their marriage. It may also specify where the couple will live, whether or not the first wife will allow the husband to take a second wife without her consent, whether or not the wife has the right to initiate divorce, and other such matters. The marriage contract somewhat resembles the marriage settlements once negotiated for upper-class Western brides, but can extend to non-financial matters usually ignored by marriage settlements or pre-nuptial agreements.
In practice, most Islamic marriages are entered into without a written contract, or with a "fill in the blanks" form supplied by the officiant. In such cases, Islamic law, influenced by custom and/or rulings by local courts based on local law, governs the treatment of a divorcee or widow, and is often, in the opinion of Islamic feminists, unfair or unkind. Islamic feminists have been active in informing Muslim women of their rights under Islamic law (sharia) and encouraging them to negotiate favorable contracts before marriage.
[edit] Rights and obligations as wife
Main article: Rights and obligations of spouses in Islam
Islam advocates a harmonious relationship between husband and wife. It puts the main responsibility of earning over the husband. Both are asked to fulfill the other's sexual needs.[59] Husbands are asked to be kind to their wives and wives are asked to be obedient to their husbands. Qur'an also emphasizes the importance of taking counsel and mutual agreement in family decisions.[15][60]
[edit] "Rebellious wives" and domestic violence
Main article: Domestic violence and Islam
In case of "rebellious" behaviour, Verse 34 of an-Nisa says the husband should urge his wife to mend her ways, refuse to share her bed, and admonish her by beating.[61] There is conflict between Islamic scholars about the proper interpretation of this and related texts. Some scholars urge that idribûhunna, normally translated as "beat", should instead be translated as "separate". There is also conflict about the proper severity of beatings, and whether the aforementioned remedies for rebellion must be taken in sequence. Some scholars say that beating should be used only as a last resort, and that not beating is preferable to beating.
While many of the scholars allowing "beating" stress that it is a last resort, discountenanced, and must be done so as not to cause injury, many Muslims believe that domestic violence is acceptable, and domestic violence is often considered to be a problem particularly associated with Muslim communities.[citation needed]
[edit] Polygamy
Main article: Polygyny in Islam
Polygamy is permitted under restricted conditions,[62] but it is not widespread.[2] Women are not allowed to engage in polyandry, whereas men are allowed to engage in polygyny.[63]
[edit] Sexuality
Main article: Islamic sexual jurisprudence
According to Doumato, in Islamic thought, women are held responsible for sexual temptation. She writes: "Specific Quranic verses enjoin modesty upon women and, to a lesser degree, upon men; and women are viewed as being responsible for sexual temptation (fitna)."[64]
More positively, some hold that Islam enjoins sexual pleasure within marriage; see Asra Nomani's polemic "Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in the Bedroom".
A high value is placed on chastity (not to be confused with celibacy) for both men and women. To protect women from accusations of unchaste behaviour, the scripture lays down severe punishments towards those who make false allegations about a woman's chastity [65]
[edit] Divorce
Main article: Talaq (Nikah)
The rules for talaq (divorce) vary among the major Islamic schools. For both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, the right to demand a divorce is primarily for men. Unless otherwise specified in the marriage contract, women can only seek divorce through court proceedings by convincing a qadi to grant a divorce. Shi'as and Sunnis believe that a wife can ask for a hula (also transliterated khulah) divorce.
Usually, assuming her husband demands a divorce, the divorced wife keeps her mahr(dowry), both the original gift and any supplementary property specified in the marriage contract. She is also given child support until the age of weaning, at which point the child's custody will be settled by the couple or by the courts.
Women’s right to divorce is often extremely limited compared with that of men in the Middle East. While men can divorce their wives easily, women face many legal and financial obstacles. For example, in Yemen, women usually can ask for divorce only when the husband’s inability to support her life is admitted, while men can divorce at will.
In practice in most of the Muslim world today divorce can be quite involved as there may be separate secular procedures to follow as well.
This contentious area of religious practice and tradition is being increasingly challenged by those promoting more liberal interpretations of Islam.
[edit] Restriction of movement and driving
Islam restricts women in traveling independently or with other women as a group. Generally, it is impermissible for a woman to travel the distance of three days (equivalent to 48 miles) without her husband or a mahram (unmarriageable male relative) accompanying her.[66]
Amnesty International has reported that women are forbidden to drive in Saudi Arabia per a 1990 fatwa (religious ruling) decreed by the Council of Senior Ulama (legal scholars of shari'a law).[67] However, Sheikh Ayed Al-Qarni, a prominent Saudi Islamic scholar, said that Islam does not prohibit women from driving and that it is preferred for a woman to drive herself rather than being driven by a stranger without a legal escort. Al-Qarni said, "There is no definite text (either in the Qur’an or Sunnah) that bans women driving." The scholar, however, does not want to give the impression that he necessarily believes that women should drive, saying "I personally will not allow my wife or daughters or sisters to drive." [68] John Esposito says that these restrictions originate from cultural customs and not Islam.[69] Saudi Arabia, influenced by Wahabism, is currently the only Muslim country that bans women from driving. [69] [70] When the Taliban ruled Afghanistan, they issued a 2001 decree that also banned women from driving.[71]
[edit] Dress code
Main article: Hijab
A woman wearing a burqa in Afghanistan
Hijab is usually taken to mean modest dress (see sartorial hijab) but also refers to demeanor in general. The Qur'an requires believers, both male and female, to dress and behave modestly.
"And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears thereof and to draw their headcovers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands fathers, their sons." (24:31).
Traditionally, this sura (verse) has been interpreted to mean that women should cover all but their face and hands. Men are required only to cover themselves from knee to waist. Some Islamic societies have set even stricter dress codes for women, requiring women to wear chadors or burqas, over-garments that hide all but the eyes. Some Muslims criticize this as excessive, referring to Qur'anic verses saying that it is wrong to refrain from what is permitted by God according to Qur'an 66:1. This is usually interpreted as applying to asceticism; critics of strict dress codes are applying this to clothing as well.
Traditionally Muslims, Salafis particularly and others generally, believe that the garments known today as jilbab and khumūr are the very garments demanded by the Qur'an. However, Qur'an translators and commentators translate the Arabic into English words with a general meaning - such as veils, head-coverings and shawls.[72] While some scholars argue that verses 24:30-31 teach etiquette for male and female interactions, where khumūr is mentioned in reference to the clothing of Arab women in the 7th century, but there is no command to actually wear them in any specific way. Hence they consider head-covering a preferable practice but not a directive of the sharia (law).[62]
Some contemporary Muslims believe that the commandment to modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest, or daring, in one society may not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve in the situations in which they find themselves.[73]
John Esposito argues that the Qur'an does not stipulate veiling or seclusion (see also purdah); on the contrary, it tends to emphasize the participation of religious responsibility of both men and women in society.[74]
[edit] Women in religious life
[edit] Spirituality
In Islam, there is no difference between men and women as far as their relationship to God is concerned, as both are promised the same reward for good conduct and the same punishment for evil conduct. The Quran offers the same rewards for men and women [75], including the chance of entering Paradise [76]. The scripture also states that: "Who so does that which is right, and believes, whether male or female, him or her will We quicken to happy life." Qur'an 16:97. However Some Islamic scholars argue that menstruating woman are considered unclean and therefore unfit for praying.[77][78]
[edit] Women in prayer
At the time of Muhammad, the women prayed at the rear of the building while the men were at the front; however, they would have been within earshot of the imam (religious leader), and any men entering the mosque would have had to pass them. A saying attributed to Muhammad is: "Do not forbid the mosques of Allah to the women of Allah" [79]. Also, on the Hajj, the mandatory pilgrimage to Mecca, men and women pray side by side. In most modern mosques, however, women and men are segregated into separate sections, where they perform ablutions (wuzu) and prayers (salat). Any women's groups or classes will normally be held here too. Usually there are separate doors for men and women, with the children entering with their mothers before being led to madrassa (religious school).
[edit] Women as religious leaders and scholars
Main article: Women as imams
In many[citation needed] modern interpretations of Islam, it is acceptable for women to be scholars[80] because women, as well as men, are encouraged to become as educated as they can.[citation needed] In most Muslim societies, however, the education of women lags behind that of men which is, generally speaking, low to begin with. Throughout the history of Islam, there were 2,500 female jurists, narrators of hadith, and poets.[80] Today, while female activists and writers are relatively common, there has not been a significant female jurist in over 200 years.[80]
The right to hold an official position in a mosque, however, is disputed by many. A fundamental role of an imam (religious leader) in a mosque is to lead the salah (congregational prayers). Generally, women are generally not allowed to lead mixed prayers. However, some argue that Muhammad gave permission to Ume Warqa to lead a mixed prayer at the mosque of Dar.[81][82][83]
[edit] Women and politics
[edit] Women as political leaders
Benazir Bhutto, former prime minister of Pakistan.
Main article: Female political leaders in Islam and in Muslim-majority countries
According to a Sunni hadith, Muhammad said that people with a female ruler will never be successful.[84] It has, however, been noted that in Islamic history women including Aisha, Ume Warqa, and Samra Binte Wahaib took part in political activities.[81]
There are few other historical role models for Muslim women as leaders.[citation needed] Razia Sultana was the short-lived third major independent Muslim ruler of the Sultanate of Delhi in India[85] and the Mamluk queen Shajarat ad-Durr ruled for a few years in Egypt.[86]
There are many contemporary examples of women leading countries in which Muslims are a majority or a large minority. Remarkably, a majority of all Muslims in the world live in countries that have, at some time, elected women as their leaders.[citation needed] These countries include Indonesia,[87] Pakistan,[88] Bangladesh,[89], India, and Turkey[90].
[edit] Right to vote
Iraqi women waiting to vote in elections, 2005.
According to some scholars voting is permissible for women in Islam, as it has never been openly banned, neither in Quran nor by Sunnah.[91]
Until recently most Muslim nations were non-democratic, but most today allow their citizens to have some level of voting and control over their government. Aside from Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, all such nations allow women to vote. (Lebanon requires proof of education for women to vote.)
The history of women’s suffrage in Muslim societies is quite varied and is indicative of the varied traditions and values that are present within the Muslim world. Azerbaijan has had women's suffrage since 1918, but many Arab states did not have women's suffrage until the last ten years. It is to be noted that even where women's suffrage as a right is technically present, women may not as a practical matter be able to vote.[citation needed]
When compared with First World Western countries, Muslim countries on the whole have lagged in granting women suffrage.[92] Because the majority of Muslim countries are developing nations, it might be more appropriate to compare suffrage rights with those of other developing nations. See also Timeline of women's suffrage.
[edit] Women as slaves and prisoners of war
Main articles: Islam and Slavery and Ma malakat aymanukum and sex
The major juristic schools of Islam traditionally accepted the institution of slavery[93]; slaves were referred to in the Qur'an as ma malakat aymanukum, a circumlocution meaning "that which your right hand possesses". Slavery is today widely viewed to be opposed to Islamic principles of justice and equality[94] and has been outlawed in almost all of the Muslim world.[95] However, slavery claiming the sanction of Islam still exists in Chad, Mauritania and Sudan.[96][97]
Several aspects of the master-slave relationship are of particular interest in the case where a slave is female. The mahr (dowry) that is given for marriage to a female slave is taken by her owner[98] (since property of slaves is generally owned by the master[99]), whereas all other women possess it absolutely for themselves.[100] The Qur'an also permits sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage.[101][102]
[edit] Modern debate and movements relating to the status of women in Islam
Using the Qur'an (the holy book of Islam), the hadith (the sayings of Mohammed) and the lives of prominent women in the early period of Muslim history as sources, conservatives have argued that existing gender asymmetries are divinely ordained, while feminists have emphasized the more egalitarian ideals of early Islam. For both Islamic feminists and anti-feminists, Islamic doctrine has continued to be the basis for discourse regarding women's rights.[103] Whether perceived injustice is according to Islamic religious doctrine or culture is disputed.
[edit] Conservatives
Conservatives reject the assertion that different laws prescribed for men and women imply that men are more valuable than women, arguing that the only criterion of value before God is piety.[citation needed][104] Some Islamic scholars justify the different religious laws for men and women by referring to the biological and sociological differences between men and women[citation needed]. For example, regarding the inheritance law which states that women’s share of inheritance is half that of men, the imam Ali ibn Musa Al-reza reasoned that at the time of marriage a man has to pay something to his prospective bride, and that men are responsible for both their wives' and their own expenses but women have no such responsibility.[105]
[edit] Islamism
The nebulous revivalist movement termed Islamism is one of the most dynamic movements within Islam in the 20th and 21st centuries. The experience of women in Islamist states has been strikingly varied.
Iran has been, since its revolution in 1979, a theocracy. The position of women in Iran today is complex. Iranian Islamists are ideologically committed to inequality for women in inheritance and other areas of the civil code and to segregation of the sexes. However, women legislators are included in the Majlis of Iran (parliament),[106] and women comprise 60% of university students.[107]
Women in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan faced treatment condemned by the international community.[108] The Taliban's stated aim was to create "secure environments where the chasteness and dignity of women may once again be sacrosanct." [109] The treatment of women was based on Pashtunwali beliefs that prescribe for women to live in purdah (seclusion). [110] Women were forced to wear the burqa in public,[111] not allowed to work,[112] and not allowed to be educated after the age of eight.[113] They were not allowed to be treated by male doctors unless accompanied by a male chaperon, which led to illnesses remaining untreated. They faced public flogging [114] and execution for violations of the Taliban's laws. [115][116]
[edit] Liberals
Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a former Muslim and prominent critic of the role of women in Islam.
Liberals have denounced treatment of Muslim women as essentialist, ahistorical and lacking in class perspectives with respect to Islamic injunctions (fatwa).[117][118][103] They have asserted that "women are not treated as equal members" of Muslim societies [119] and have criticized Islam for condoning this treatment.[120][121] Some critics have made gone so far as to make allegations of gender apartheid due to women's status.[122]
At least one critic has alleged that Western academics, especially feminists, have ignored the plight of Muslim women to be "politically correct."[123]
[edit] Liberal movements within Islam
Main article: Liberal movements within Islam
Islam contains conservative and liberal strands, as do other religions. Ijtihad, a form of critical thinking, is one way Muslims are creating a more progressive form of Islam, which includes a consideration of the status of women.[124]
Islamic feminism is a form of feminism that aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of sex or gender, in public and private life.[125] Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilised secular and western feminist discourses and recognise the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement[126]. Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in Islam, and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, hadith and sharia towards the creation of a more equal and just society.[127]
[edit] See also
Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam
Female Circumcision in Islam
Female figures in the Qur'an
Role of women in religion
Women in Arab societies
Women's rights
[edit] Works cited
Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994.
Levy, Reuben (1969). The Social Structure of Islam. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Yvonne Haddad and John Esposito. Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Published 1998. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 0-19-511357-8.
[edit] References
^ a b c d e Haddad and Esposito, pp. xii
^ a b c The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2002), AltaMira Press, ISBN 0-7591-0189-2, pp.476.
^ Malise Ruthven (2000). Islam: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-950469-5, p.93
^ Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 2, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), p. 278
^ Maan, Bashir and Alastair McIntosh. "'The whole house of Islam, and we Christians with them...': An interview with 'the Last Orientalist' - the Rev Prof William Montgomery Watt." Internet version from www.alastairmcintosh.com. Also published in The Coracle, the Iona Community, summer 2000, issue 3:51, pp. 8-11.
^ Carla Makhlouf Obermeyer. "Islam, Women, and Politics: The demography of Arab countries", Population and Development Review, Vol. 18, No. 1. (Mar., 1992), pp. 33-60
^ Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power, New York, Columbia University Press
^ See also Qur'an 2:228: "And it is for the women to act as they (the husbands) act by them, in all fairness; but the men are a step above them."
^ See also Qur'an 4:34: "Men are in charge of women, because Allah hath made the one of them to excel the other, and because they spend of their property (for the support of women). So good women are the obedient, guarding in secret that which Allah hath guarded ..."
^ Ahmed, L., 1992, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate, New Haven, Yale University Press.
^ Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power, New York, Columbia University Press
^ "Revere God and the wombs (that bore you)." Qur'an, 4:1
^ a b http://www.quran.org.uk/out.php?LinkID=93
^ "When news is brought to one of them, of (the birth of) a female (child), his face darkens, and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people, because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain it on (sufferance and) contempt, or bury it in the dust? Ah! what an evil (choice) they decide on?" Qur'an, 16:58-59
^ a b c Jamal Badawi, The status of women in Islam
^ See also Qur'an 4:25: "Wed them with permission of their folk, and give them Mahr according what is reasonable ..."
^ See also Qur'an 4:34: "Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means..."
^ "From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large,-a determinate share."Sura 4:7[1]
^ See also Qur'an 4:11: "For example, where the deceased has both male and female children, a son's share is double that of a daughter's."
^ See also Qur'an 4:126: "Additionally, the sister of a childless man inherits half of his property upon his death, while a brother of a childless woman inherits all of her property."
^ http://www.mopw.gov.pk/ulema/proceedings/Page%20291%20to%20Page%20314.pdf
^ "Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient..." Qur'an, 4:34
^ Haddad/Esposito pg.41
^ Assaad, R., 2003, Gender & Employment: Egypt in Comparative Perspective, in Doumato, E.A. & Posusney, M.P., Women and Globalization in the Arab Middle East: Gender, Economy and Society, Colorado, Lynne Rienner Publishers
^ http://www.prb.org/datafind/prjprbdata/wcprbdata6.asp?DW=DR&SL=&SA=1
^ a b c d e f g Ibn Rushd. Bidayatu’l-Mujtahid, 1st ed., vol. 4, (Beirut: Daru’l-Ma‘rifah, 1997), p. 311.
^ See also Sahih Bukhari 1:6:301: "Is not the evidence of two women equal to the witness of one man?" They replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her intelligence."
^ See also Sahih Bukhari 3:48:826: "Isn't the witness of a women equal to half that of a man?" The women said "yes". He said "This is because of the deficiency of the women's mind."
^ See also Sahih Muslim 1:142: "O womenfolk, you should ask for forgiveness for I saw you in bulk amongst the dwellers of Hell. A wise lady said: Why is it, Allah’s Apostle, that women comprise the bulk of the inhabitants of Hell? The Prophet observed: ‘You curse too much and are ungrateful to your spouses. You lack common sense, fail in religion and rob the wisdom of the wise.’ Upon this the woman remarked: What is wrong with our common sense? The Prophet replied, ‘Your lack of common sense can be determined from the fact that the evidence of two women is equal to one man. That is a proof."
^ See also Qur'an 2:282: "... and call in to witness from among your men two witnesses; but if there are not two men, then one man and two women from among those whom you choose to be witnesses, so that if one of the two errs, the second of the two may remind the other...".
^ According to Averroes, a 12th-century Maliki, "There is a general consensus among the jurists that in financial transactions a case stands proven by the testimony of a just man and two women on the basis of [this] verse." (Ibn Rushd. Bidayatu’l-Mujtahid, 1st ed., vol. 4, (Beirut: Daru’l-Ma‘rifah, 1997), p. 311).
^ Ghamidi. Burhan:The Law of Evidence. Al-Mawrid
^ Ibn al-Qayyim, I‘lam al-Muwwaqi‘in, 1st ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Jayl, 1973), 91.
^ Half of a Man!, Renaissance - Monthly Islamic Journal, 14(7), July 2004
^ Ordinary Muslims also challenge the extent of the application of the verse; see, e.g., http://www.submission.org/women/faq8.html.
^ http://www.twf.org/Library/WomenICJ.html#witness
^ a b Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, The Penal Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid
^ Asifa Quraishi. "Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective," in Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America, Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). The author also argues that this traditional view may be inconsistent with the requirements outlined in the Qur'an.
^ See, e.g., http://www.geo.tv/zs/Zina_article_Final.pdf.
^ According to Ibn Qudamah, "This is the view of Omar, al-Zuhri, Qatadah, al-Thawri, al-Shafi'i, and others and we do not know anyone who has departed from this view." (Although this seems to indicate unanimity, Ibn Qudamah himself uses the language "overwhelming majority.") Muwaffaq al-Din Ibn Qudamah, al-Mughni (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi n.d), Vol. 10, p. 159, quoted in http://www.geo.tv/zs/Zina_article_Final.pdf.
^ Sahih Abu Dawud Book 38, Number 4366 retrieved from: http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/038.sat.html
^ http://www.islam-democracy.org/documents/pdf/6th_Annual_Conference-JulieNorman.pdf
^ See, e.g., http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=1369 and Asifa Quraishi. "Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective," in Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America, Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). Mentioned in verses 5:33-34
^ Kecia Ali: Honor Killings, Illicit Sex, and Islamic Law, The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, June 10, 2003
^ "Q&A: Honour killings explained", BBC News, 2004-06-22. Retrieved on 2007-07-09.
^ For instance, the practice is little known in Indonesia, the world's most populous Islamic country, as well as in parts of West Africa with majority-Muslim populations.http://www.nuradeen.com/Reflections/ElementsOfSufism3.htm
^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3828675.stm
^ http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1244406,00.html
^ "Slay not your children, fearing a fall to poverty, We shall provide for them and for you. Lo! the slaying of them is great sin." Qur'an, 17:31
^ "[W]hen the girl-child that was buried alive is asked for what sin she was slain ..." Qur'an, 81:8-9
^ See also Qur'an 30:21: "And among His signs is this, that He has created for you mates from among yourselves, that you may dwell in tranquillity with them; and He has put love and mercy between you. Verily in that are signs for those who reflect."
^ "Ibni `Abbaas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (sws), and she reported that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God gave her the choice [between accepting the marriage or invalidating it]." Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal 2469. "...the girl said: "Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted to let women know that parents have no right [to force a husband on them]". Sunan Ibn Maja 1873.
^ "O you who believe! You are forbidden to inherit women against their will." 4:19
^ Levy, p.106
^ Sahih Bukhari 5:58:234 and Sahih Muslim 8:3311
^ D. A. Spellberg; Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40
^ Friedmann (2003), p. 37
^ Friedmann (2003), p. 35
^ And now, people, you acquire certain rights over your wives, and they do you. The right you acquire over them is that they should not let someone you hate sleep in your beds, and not to commit a manifest obscenity [or adultery]. If they do [commit it], then God has given you permission to leave them alone in their beds and give them a beating, though not too hard. If they give over, they get their provision and clothing with kindness; I command you good-will for your wives, for they are your captives(1) that do not own anything of their own. You have taken them by the faithfulness of God, and made their sexual organs lawful for you by the words of God. Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-nabawiyya (Cairo, 1963), 4:251.
^ For example, "If they [husband and wife] desire to wean the child by mutual consent and after consultation, there is no blame on them." Qur'an, 2:233
^ Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir of Ibn Kathir”, Al-Firdous Ltd., London, 2000, 50-53
^ a b Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, Chapter:The Social Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid
^ Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, Chapter: The Social Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid. The pertinent Qur'an verse is "And if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, marry [their mothers] that are lawful to you, two two, three three, four four; but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly [with them], then only one, or those which your right hands possess. That will be more suitable to prevent you from doing injustice. And give these women their dowers also the way dowers are given; but if they, of their own good pleasure, remit any part of it to you, take it and consume it gladly." Qur'an, 4:3-4.
^ Eleanor Abdella Doumato, in Helen Chapin Metz (ed.), Saudi Arabia: a country study (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1993), Ch. 2. (This source might also be found at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sa0038) )
^ "And those who launch a charge against chaste women, and produce not four witnesses (to support their allegations), - flog them with eighty stripes; and reject their evidence ever after: for such men are wicked transgressors."Qur'an, 24:4
^ http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=1&ID=1993&CATE=143
^ [2]
^ [3]
^ a b John L. Esposito(2002), p.99, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam, Oxford University Press
^ Natana J. Delong-Bas(2004), p.123, Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad, Oxford University Press
^ The Situation of Women in Afghanistan - United Nations Report
^ See collection of Qur'an translations, compared verse by verse
^ Women in Islam: Hijab, Ibrahim B. Syed, 2001
^ John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path,, p.98, 3rd Edition. Oxford University Press, 2005.
^ "For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in God's praise, for them has God prepared forgiveness and great reward." 33:35 and "Their Lord responds to them: "I will not let the deeds of any doer among you go to waste, male or female - you are both the same in that respect ..." 3:195
^ "Enter into Paradise, you and your wives, with delight." 43:70
^ See also Sahih Bukhari 1:6:301: "Isn't it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her menses?" The women replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her religion."
^ `Â’ishah relates that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “I do not permit a woman in her menses or a person in a state of major ritual impurity into the mosque.” [Sunan Abî Dâwûd, Sunan Ibn Mâjah, Sunan al-Bayhaqî, and Sahîh Ibn Khuzaymah]
^ http://shams.za.org/access.htm
^ a b c http://www.themodernreligion.com/women/recognition.html
^ a b Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Religious leadership of women in Islam, April 24, 2005, Daily Times, Pakistan
^ Sunan Abu Dawud, 2:591
^ Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, (Bayrut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al- ‘Arabi, n.d.) vol.5, 3:1375
^ Sahih Bukhari 5:59:709
^ http://www.crescentlife.com/thisthat/feminist%20muslims/razia.htm
^ http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/shajarat.htm
^ http://www.time.com/time/pow/printout/0,8816,169130,00.html
^ Ali A. Mazrui, Pretender to Universalism: Western Culture in a Globalizing Age, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volume 21, Number 1, April 2001
^ http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/11/06women_Khaleda-Zia_JSK7.html
^ http://womenshistory.about.com/od/cillertansu/Tansu_iller.htm
^ Islam Online.net
^ See Timeline of women's suffrage, Majority Muslim countries, and Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries
^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
^ Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery
^ Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Segal, Ronald (2001). Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 206 and 222.
^ http://www.africaspeaks.com/articles/070699.html
^ Levy, p.114
^ Levy, p.76
^ Levy, p.114
^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112-113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses 23:1-6: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
^ a b
^ Part of the verse (3:36) that literally reads as “the male is not like the female” is usually used to show that the value of the female is greater than or at least equal to the value of the male. (The text is not clear as to whether this quote is supposed to be from God or from the mother of Mary, but the meaning of the phrase is clear in its context.)[citation needed]
^ Quoted in Grand Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi, Tafsir Nemoneh, on verse 4:12.
^ See, e.g., Tahereh Saffarzadeh, Masumeh Ebtekar, Marzieh Dabbaq and Zahra Rahnavard.
^ http://www.parstimes.com/women/women_universities.html
^ M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110. For an example, see http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm.
^ Nancy Hatch Dupree. 'Afghan Women under the Taliban' in William Maley (2001). Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban. London: Hurst and Company, pp145-166.
^ Peter Marsden (1998). The Taliban: War, religion and the new order in Afghanistan. London: Zed Books Ltd, pp88-101.
^ M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110.
^ http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3ae6a84d0.html
^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm
^ A woman being flogged in public.
^ "The Taliban's War on Women"PDF (857 KiB), Physicians for Human Rights, August 1998.
^ "100 Girls' Schools in Afghan Capital Are Ordered Shut", The New York Times, June 17, 1998.
^ Nikki R. Reddie, "Problems in the study of Middle Eastern Woman", International Journal of Middle East Studies, 10 (1979), pp. 225-240
^ Judith E. Tukker, "Problems in the Histiography of women in the Middle-East - The case of nineteenth century Egypt", International Journal of Middle-East studies, 15 (1963), pp.321-336
^ http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2005&country=6825. See also Timothy Garton Ash. "Islam in Europe", The New York Review of Books, 10-05-2006. and http://www.ntpi.org/html/liberationofwomen.html.
^ Timothy Garton Ash. "Islam in Europe", The New York Review of Books, 10-05-2006.
^ http://www.ntpi.org/html/liberationofwomen.html
^ Feminist author Phyllis Chesler, for example, asserted: "Islamists oppose the ideals of dignity and equality for women by their practice of gender apartheid. This is a system which includes some, if not all, of the following human-rights violations: female genital mutilation, veiling and hijab, purdah, normalized daughter- and wife-beating, arranged (child) marriage, often to first cousins, polygamy, honor murder, the imprisonment, torture, beheading, stoning to death, and hanging of rape victims, suspected prostitutes, and feminist dissidents — especially in Iran today."Phyllis Chesler interview
^ "Such Islamist misogynists have many Western allies and apologists...Among them are many academic and establishment feminists who are also apologists for Islamic religious and gender apartheid and for the international trafficking in women and girls. In this, they are feminism's worst enemies. For example, many academic feminists fear that any serious critique of veiling, purdah, or polygamy might be slandered as "racist." They are right. These days, telling the truth about indigenous Islamic barbarism towards women and men is quickly branded as "politically incorrect" and dismissed as "racist" and "imperialist" arrogance."[4]
^ See, e.g., http://www.asmasociety.org/wise/article_ijtihad.pdf
^ http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1426&fuseaction=topics.event_summary&event_id=42775
^ http://www.feminismeislamic.org/eng/index.htm
^ http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/569/cu1.htm
[edit] Further reading
John Esposito and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-195-11357-8
Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate, Yale University Press, 1992
Valentine Moghadam (ed), Gender and National Identity.
Nadje Al-Ali and Nicola Pratt, Women in Iraq: Beyond the Rhetoric, Middle East Report, No. 239, Summer 2006
Karen Armstrong, The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, London, HarperCollins/Routledge, 2001
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v • d • e
The complex relationship between women and Islam is defined by both Islamic texts and the history and culture of the Muslim world.[1] Some Islamic scholars argue that the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, maintains women's religious and moral equality.[1][2][3] However, sharia (Islamic law) provides for marked differences between women's and men's roles, rights, and obligations, and many Muslim-majority countries allow women fewer rights than men with regard to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, and education.
Even where these differences are acknowledged, scholars and other commentators vary as to whether they are unjust and whether they are a correct interpretation of religious imperatives. Conservatives argue that differences between men and women are due to different status and responsibilities,[4] while liberal Muslims, Muslim feminists, and others argue that more progressive interpretations of the role of women are more just.
Contents[hide]
1 Historical background
1.1 Status of women in pre-Islamic Arabia
1.2 Evolution of women's status after the introduction of Islam
2 Gender roles
3 Sex segregation
4 Financial rights
4.1 Inheritance
4.2 Right to work
5 Legal matters
5.1 Rights to give testimony
5.2 Diyya
5.3 Punishments
6 Marriage and sexuality
6.1 Age
6.2 Restrictions on marriage
6.3 Marriage contract
6.4 Rights and obligations as wife
6.4.1 "Rebellious wives" and domestic violence
6.5 Polygamy
6.6 Sexuality
6.7 Divorce
7 Restriction of movement and driving
8 Dress code
9 Women in religious life
9.1 Spirituality
9.2 Women in prayer
9.3 Women as religious leaders and scholars
10 Women and politics
10.1 Women as political leaders
10.2 Right to vote
11 Women as slaves and prisoners of war
12 Modern debate and movements relating to the status of women in Islam
12.1 Conservatives
12.1.1 Islamism
12.2 Liberals
12.2.1 Liberal movements within Islam
13 See also
14 Works cited
15 References
16 Further reading
17 External links
//
[edit] Historical background
[edit] Status of women in pre-Islamic Arabia
Main article: Women in Arab societies#Arab women before Islam
In pre-Islamic Arabia, women's status varied widely according to laws and cultural norms of the tribes in which they lived. There were instances where women held high positions of power and authority; there were also patterns of homicidal abuse of women and girls, including female infanticide.[citation needed] It is claimed by some Muslim writers and some scholars of Middle Eastern history that in pre-Islamic Arabia, women could not inherit land or wealth; holdings were usually considered the property of the tribe she was born or married in to. This lack of rights was not particular to Arabia; see legal rights of women in history.
[edit] Evolution of women's status after the introduction of Islam
Islam changed the structure of Arab society and to a large degree unified the people, reforming and standardizing gender roles throughout the region.
The Islamic scholar William Montgomery Watt states:
[S]ome of the early sources ... seem[] to show that Muhammad made things better for women. It appears that in some parts of Arabia, notably in Mecca, a matrilineal system was in the process of being replaced by a patrilineal one at the time of Muhammad. Growing prosperity caused by a shifting of trade routes was accompanied by a growth in individualism. Men were amassing considerable personal wealth and wanted to be sure that this would be inherited by their own actual sons, and not simply by an extended family of their sisters’ sons. This led to a deterioration in the rights of women. At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible - they had no right to own property, were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons. Muhammad improved things quite a lot. By instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, he gave women certain basic safeguards. Set in such historical context the Prophet can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women’s rights. [5]
Islam, both in the form of Quranic teachings and sharia (law), has had a formative influence on the role of women and men in Muslim societies throughout the centuries.[1] John Esposito writes with regard to women in Islam:[1]
The study of women in Islam and Muslim society is complex, reflecting the diverse and varied realities of Muslim women and Muslim societies throughout the ages. Alongside ideals embodied in the Qur'an and the traditions (hadith) of Muhammad, one must look at the actual condition of Muslim women in diverse time periods and sociohistorical contexts. The status of women in Islam was profoundly affected not only by the fact that Islamic belief interacted with and was informed by diverse cultures, but also, and of equal importance, that the primary interpreters of Islamic law and tradition were men (religious scholars or ulama) from those cultures.
Islamic law is the product of Quranic guidelines, as understood by Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), as well as of the interpretations derived from the traditions of Muhammad (hadith), which were also selected by a number of historical Islamic scholars. Such rules were historically often eroded and subverted, claims Esposito, by social custom, poverty, and illiteracy.[citation needed] Furthermore, whether or not Muslims tended to follow these rules was dependent on the prevailing culture, which differed between social classes, local conditions, and regions.[citation needed] Quranic reforms, which in many regions improved the position of women relative to their situation prior to Islam, have often been undermined by the reassertion of tribal customs, or the use of such customs under the name of Islamic law. The spirit of the Quranic reforms may also have been modified by historical or cultural interpretations, reaffirming male dominance and perpetuating gender inequality.[citation needed]
[edit] Gender roles
Main article: Gender roles in Islam
In Islam, relations between the sexes are governed not by the principle of equality but by that of complementarity.[6] In many Islamic societies, there is a division of roles creating a woman’s space in the private sphere of the home and a man’s in the public sphere.[7]Because of this economic reliance of woman on men, the Koran justifies that men should always be in charge over woman.[8][9] A woman's primary responsibility is usually interpreted as fulfilling her role as a wife and mother,[10] whereas a man’s role is to work and be able to financially support his wife and family.[11] The Quran also directs men to honor their mothers[12] and strongly disapproves of parents who feel ashamed over the birth of a daughter instead of a son.[13][14]
[edit] Sex segregation
Main article: Sex segregation and Islam
See also: Purdah
Islam discourages social interaction between men and women when they are alone, but not all interaction between men and women. This is shown in the example of Khadijah, a businesswoman who employed Muhammad and met with him to conduct trade before they were married, and in the example set by his other wives, who taught and counseled the men and women of Medina.
In some Islamic countries, such as Saudi Arabia, sex segregation has been or is strictly enforced. The Taliban treatment of women in Afghanistan was an extreme example of this. Even in countries where the sexes mingle socially, they generally remain segregated within the mosque.
[edit] Financial rights
Islam gives women the right to own, which entitles them to have personal possessions. It also guarantees them to right to inherit a proportion of their father's estate.
A woman, when compared with her husband, is far less burdened with any claims on her possessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband and she keeps her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such properties or out of her income after marriage. Unless she is a slave[vague] she is entitled to the mahr (dowry) which her husband gives her at the time of marriage.[15][16] Women, unlike men, also have the right to be supported financially.[2][17]
However, some of women's financial rights are limited compared to those of men. Women's share of inheritance, as outlined in the Qur'an, is typically less than that of men. Women's right to work is also disputed.
[edit] Inheritance
Main article: Islamic inheritance jurisprudence#Women and inheritance
In Islam, women are entitled the right of inheritance,[18] but often a woman's share of inheritance is less than that of a man's. In general circumstances, Islam allots females half the inheritance share available to males who have the same degree of relation to the deceased.[19][20] Some argue that this difference derives from men's obligation to support their wives financially.[1]
In most Muslim nations, the law of the state concerning inheritance is in accordance with this law.[citation needed]
[edit] Right to work
Whether the Qur'an allows women to work outside the home is disputed. Some Muslims believe that if a woman fulfills her primary responsibility as wife and mother, she may have a career if she wishes and if her husband agrees. Some Muslims believe that verse 4:32 of the Qur'an ("Unto men a fortune from that which they have earned, and unto women a fortune from that which they have earned.") indicates that women have the right to work.[21] As the Qur'an puts the main responsibility of earning on the husband and asks wives to be obedient to their husbands,[22] permission to work is generally considered conditional.[citation needed] Other Muslims believe that regardless of their "primary" responsibility, the Qur'an does allow women to earn money by having occupations outside of the home.[citation needed]
There are also disagreements between Islamic schools of thought about whether women whould be able to enter specific job areas. One major disputed area is that of the judge in a court: Shafi`ites claim that women may hold no judicial office, while Hanafites allow women to act as judges in civil cases only, not criminal ones. These interpretations are based on the above quoted Medinese sura (verse) 4:34.[23]
Even when women have the right to work and are educated, women's job opportunities may in practice be unequal to those of men. In Egypt for example, women have limited opportunities to work in the private sector because women are still expected to put their role in the family first, which causes men to be seen as more reliable in the long term.[24]
Increasingly, women in Muslim countries are seeking employment. In Saudi Arabia the female population in employment has reached 23%, while in Indonesia the rate is 51% [25].
[edit] Legal matters
[edit] Rights to give testimony
In cases of hudud, punishments for serious crimes, 12th-century Maliki jurist Averroes wrote that jurists disagree about the status of women's testimony.[26] According to Averroes, most scholars say that in this case women's testimony is unacceptable regardless of whether they testify alongside male witnesses.[26]. However, he writes that the school of thought known as the Zahiris believe that if two or more women testify alongside a male witness, then (as in cases regarding financial transactions, discussed below), their testimony is acceptable.[26]. the Zahiris opinion is based on the Koran verses in which Mohammad states that "a woman is equal to half of a men man". [27][28][29] In case of witnesses for financial documents, the Qur'an asks for two men or one man and two women.[30][31] It is disputed whether this means that a woman's testimony worth half that of a man either in disputes about financial transactions or as a general matter. Many Muslims believe that the legal value of the testimony of women is half that of a man.[citation needed] On the other hand, Javed Ahmed Ghamidi writes that Islam asks for two women witnesses against one male because this responsibility is not very suited to their temperament, sphere of interest, and usual environment. He argues that Islam makes no claim that woman's testimony is half in other cases.[32] Ibn al-Qayyim also argues that the verse referred to relates to the heavy responsibility of testifying by which an owner of wealth protects his rights, not with the decision of a court; the two are completely different from each other.[33] It is also argued that this command shows that Qur'an does not want to make difficulties for women.[34]
In matters other than financial transactions, scholars differ on whether the Qur'anic verses relating to financial transactions apply.[35] This is especially true in the case of bodily affairs like like divorce, marriage, slave-emancipation and raju‘ (restitution of conjugal rights).[26] According to Averroes, Imam Abu Hanifa believed that their testimony is acceptable in such cases.[26] Imam Malik, on the contrary, believes that their testimony remains unacceptable.[26] For bodily affairs about which men can have no information in ordinary circumstances, such as the physical handicaps of women and the crying of a baby at birth, the majority of scholars hold that the testimony of women alone is acceptable.[26]
In certain situations, the scripture accepts the testimony of a woman as equal to that of a man's and that her testimony can even invalidate his, such as when a man accuses his wife of unchastity.[36]
[edit] Diyya
Main article: Diyya
Diyya is a fine paid by a killer to the victim's next of kin after either intentional or unintentional homicide.[37] Islam does not prescribe any specific amount for diyat nor does it require discrimination in this matter between men and women; the Qur'an has left open its quantity, nature, and other related affairs to be defined by social custom and tradition.[37]
The law of diyya was in force in Arabia before the advent of Islam. Countries such as Saudi Arabia still use the same historical laws, which provide that the fine for unintentional murder of a woman is half of that of a man.[citation needed]
[edit] Punishments
Islamic criminal jurisprudence does not discriminate between genders in punishments for crimes.[citation needed] In case of sexual crimes such as zina (fornication), however, women may be found guilty more easily than men, because of the visible evidence of pregnancy; without a pregancy, four witnesses are required to file a zina case.[38]
The difficulty of prosecuting rapists and the possibility of prosecution for women who allege rape has been of special interest to activists for Muslim women's rights.[39] The overwhelming majority of Muslim scholars believe that there is no punishment for a woman coerced into having sex.[40] According to a Sunni hadith, the punishment for committing rape is death, there is no sin on the victim, nor is there any worldly punishment ascribed to her.[41] However, the stringent requirements for proof of rape under some interpretations of Islamic law, combined with cultural attitudes regarding rape in some parts of the Muslim world, result in few rape cases being reported; even the cases brought forward typically result in minimal punishment for offenders or severe punishment for victims.[42] It can be difficult to seek punishment against rapists, because a zina case cannot be brought without four witnesses, even for rape cases. Some scholars, however, treat rape instead as hiraba (disorder in the land),[43], which does not require four witnesses. The form of punishment and interpretation of Islamic law in this case is highly dependent on the legislation of the nation in question, and/or of the judge.
So-called honor killings (murders, nearly exclusively of women, of persons who are perceived as having brought dishonor to their families) are often identified with Islam, although scholars dispute their Quranic basis. Honor killing is forbidden in mainstream modern interpretations of Islam.[44] Many Muslim scholars and commentators say that honor killings are a cultural practice which is neither exclusive to, nor universal within, the Islamic world.[45][46] However, the practice is strongly associated with the Arabic-, Turkish-, and Urdu-speaking parts of the Muslim world, being most common within Muslim communities around the Mediterranean.[citation needed] Furthermore, most cases involving the practice in non-Muslim areas involve people from Muslim-majority countries.[47][48]
The Quran condemns infanticide[49], especially female infanticide [13][50].
[edit] Marriage and sexuality
A riverside Muslim wedding in India.
Main articles: Islamic marital jurisprudence and Islamic sexual jurisprudence
The Qu'ran considers the love between men and women to be a Sign of God.[51] According to Islamic law (sharia), marriage cannot be forced.[15][52] The Quran mandates that the will of the woman be honoured in marriage, and forbids widow inheritance without the permission of the woman concerned. [53]
[edit] Age
No age limits have been fixed by Islam for marriage. Children of the youngest age may be married or promised for marriage, although a girl is not handed across to her husband until she is fit for marital sexual relations.[54] It is related that Muhammed himself married Aisha when she was six years old[55] commenced sexual relations with her when she was nine[56]. (See various views at Aisha's age at marriage.)
[edit] Restrictions on marriage
Muslims may not place themselves in a position inferior to that of the followers of other religions.[57] Pursuant to this principle, Muslim women may not marry non-Muslim men.[58]
[edit] Marriage contract
Main article: Islamic marriage contract
The contract specifies the dowry (mahr) the groom gives to the bride upon their marriage. It may also specify where the couple will live, whether or not the first wife will allow the husband to take a second wife without her consent, whether or not the wife has the right to initiate divorce, and other such matters. The marriage contract somewhat resembles the marriage settlements once negotiated for upper-class Western brides, but can extend to non-financial matters usually ignored by marriage settlements or pre-nuptial agreements.
In practice, most Islamic marriages are entered into without a written contract, or with a "fill in the blanks" form supplied by the officiant. In such cases, Islamic law, influenced by custom and/or rulings by local courts based on local law, governs the treatment of a divorcee or widow, and is often, in the opinion of Islamic feminists, unfair or unkind. Islamic feminists have been active in informing Muslim women of their rights under Islamic law (sharia) and encouraging them to negotiate favorable contracts before marriage.
[edit] Rights and obligations as wife
Main article: Rights and obligations of spouses in Islam
Islam advocates a harmonious relationship between husband and wife. It puts the main responsibility of earning over the husband. Both are asked to fulfill the other's sexual needs.[59] Husbands are asked to be kind to their wives and wives are asked to be obedient to their husbands. Qur'an also emphasizes the importance of taking counsel and mutual agreement in family decisions.[15][60]
[edit] "Rebellious wives" and domestic violence
Main article: Domestic violence and Islam
In case of "rebellious" behaviour, Verse 34 of an-Nisa says the husband should urge his wife to mend her ways, refuse to share her bed, and admonish her by beating.[61] There is conflict between Islamic scholars about the proper interpretation of this and related texts. Some scholars urge that idribûhunna, normally translated as "beat", should instead be translated as "separate". There is also conflict about the proper severity of beatings, and whether the aforementioned remedies for rebellion must be taken in sequence. Some scholars say that beating should be used only as a last resort, and that not beating is preferable to beating.
While many of the scholars allowing "beating" stress that it is a last resort, discountenanced, and must be done so as not to cause injury, many Muslims believe that domestic violence is acceptable, and domestic violence is often considered to be a problem particularly associated with Muslim communities.[citation needed]
[edit] Polygamy
Main article: Polygyny in Islam
Polygamy is permitted under restricted conditions,[62] but it is not widespread.[2] Women are not allowed to engage in polyandry, whereas men are allowed to engage in polygyny.[63]
[edit] Sexuality
Main article: Islamic sexual jurisprudence
According to Doumato, in Islamic thought, women are held responsible for sexual temptation. She writes: "Specific Quranic verses enjoin modesty upon women and, to a lesser degree, upon men; and women are viewed as being responsible for sexual temptation (fitna)."[64]
More positively, some hold that Islam enjoins sexual pleasure within marriage; see Asra Nomani's polemic "Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in the Bedroom".
A high value is placed on chastity (not to be confused with celibacy) for both men and women. To protect women from accusations of unchaste behaviour, the scripture lays down severe punishments towards those who make false allegations about a woman's chastity [65]
[edit] Divorce
Main article: Talaq (Nikah)
The rules for talaq (divorce) vary among the major Islamic schools. For both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, the right to demand a divorce is primarily for men. Unless otherwise specified in the marriage contract, women can only seek divorce through court proceedings by convincing a qadi to grant a divorce. Shi'as and Sunnis believe that a wife can ask for a hula (also transliterated khulah) divorce.
Usually, assuming her husband demands a divorce, the divorced wife keeps her mahr(dowry), both the original gift and any supplementary property specified in the marriage contract. She is also given child support until the age of weaning, at which point the child's custody will be settled by the couple or by the courts.
Women’s right to divorce is often extremely limited compared with that of men in the Middle East. While men can divorce their wives easily, women face many legal and financial obstacles. For example, in Yemen, women usually can ask for divorce only when the husband’s inability to support her life is admitted, while men can divorce at will.
In practice in most of the Muslim world today divorce can be quite involved as there may be separate secular procedures to follow as well.
This contentious area of religious practice and tradition is being increasingly challenged by those promoting more liberal interpretations of Islam.
[edit] Restriction of movement and driving
Islam restricts women in traveling independently or with other women as a group. Generally, it is impermissible for a woman to travel the distance of three days (equivalent to 48 miles) without her husband or a mahram (unmarriageable male relative) accompanying her.[66]
Amnesty International has reported that women are forbidden to drive in Saudi Arabia per a 1990 fatwa (religious ruling) decreed by the Council of Senior Ulama (legal scholars of shari'a law).[67] However, Sheikh Ayed Al-Qarni, a prominent Saudi Islamic scholar, said that Islam does not prohibit women from driving and that it is preferred for a woman to drive herself rather than being driven by a stranger without a legal escort. Al-Qarni said, "There is no definite text (either in the Qur’an or Sunnah) that bans women driving." The scholar, however, does not want to give the impression that he necessarily believes that women should drive, saying "I personally will not allow my wife or daughters or sisters to drive." [68] John Esposito says that these restrictions originate from cultural customs and not Islam.[69] Saudi Arabia, influenced by Wahabism, is currently the only Muslim country that bans women from driving. [69] [70] When the Taliban ruled Afghanistan, they issued a 2001 decree that also banned women from driving.[71]
[edit] Dress code
Main article: Hijab
A woman wearing a burqa in Afghanistan
Hijab is usually taken to mean modest dress (see sartorial hijab) but also refers to demeanor in general. The Qur'an requires believers, both male and female, to dress and behave modestly.
"And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears thereof and to draw their headcovers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands fathers, their sons." (24:31).
Traditionally, this sura (verse) has been interpreted to mean that women should cover all but their face and hands. Men are required only to cover themselves from knee to waist. Some Islamic societies have set even stricter dress codes for women, requiring women to wear chadors or burqas, over-garments that hide all but the eyes. Some Muslims criticize this as excessive, referring to Qur'anic verses saying that it is wrong to refrain from what is permitted by God according to Qur'an 66:1. This is usually interpreted as applying to asceticism; critics of strict dress codes are applying this to clothing as well.
Traditionally Muslims, Salafis particularly and others generally, believe that the garments known today as jilbab and khumūr are the very garments demanded by the Qur'an. However, Qur'an translators and commentators translate the Arabic into English words with a general meaning - such as veils, head-coverings and shawls.[72] While some scholars argue that verses 24:30-31 teach etiquette for male and female interactions, where khumūr is mentioned in reference to the clothing of Arab women in the 7th century, but there is no command to actually wear them in any specific way. Hence they consider head-covering a preferable practice but not a directive of the sharia (law).[62]
Some contemporary Muslims believe that the commandment to modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest, or daring, in one society may not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve in the situations in which they find themselves.[73]
John Esposito argues that the Qur'an does not stipulate veiling or seclusion (see also purdah); on the contrary, it tends to emphasize the participation of religious responsibility of both men and women in society.[74]
[edit] Women in religious life
[edit] Spirituality
In Islam, there is no difference between men and women as far as their relationship to God is concerned, as both are promised the same reward for good conduct and the same punishment for evil conduct. The Quran offers the same rewards for men and women [75], including the chance of entering Paradise [76]. The scripture also states that: "Who so does that which is right, and believes, whether male or female, him or her will We quicken to happy life." Qur'an 16:97. However Some Islamic scholars argue that menstruating woman are considered unclean and therefore unfit for praying.[77][78]
[edit] Women in prayer
At the time of Muhammad, the women prayed at the rear of the building while the men were at the front; however, they would have been within earshot of the imam (religious leader), and any men entering the mosque would have had to pass them. A saying attributed to Muhammad is: "Do not forbid the mosques of Allah to the women of Allah" [79]. Also, on the Hajj, the mandatory pilgrimage to Mecca, men and women pray side by side. In most modern mosques, however, women and men are segregated into separate sections, where they perform ablutions (wuzu) and prayers (salat). Any women's groups or classes will normally be held here too. Usually there are separate doors for men and women, with the children entering with their mothers before being led to madrassa (religious school).
[edit] Women as religious leaders and scholars
Main article: Women as imams
In many[citation needed] modern interpretations of Islam, it is acceptable for women to be scholars[80] because women, as well as men, are encouraged to become as educated as they can.[citation needed] In most Muslim societies, however, the education of women lags behind that of men which is, generally speaking, low to begin with. Throughout the history of Islam, there were 2,500 female jurists, narrators of hadith, and poets.[80] Today, while female activists and writers are relatively common, there has not been a significant female jurist in over 200 years.[80]
The right to hold an official position in a mosque, however, is disputed by many. A fundamental role of an imam (religious leader) in a mosque is to lead the salah (congregational prayers). Generally, women are generally not allowed to lead mixed prayers. However, some argue that Muhammad gave permission to Ume Warqa to lead a mixed prayer at the mosque of Dar.[81][82][83]
[edit] Women and politics
[edit] Women as political leaders
Benazir Bhutto, former prime minister of Pakistan.
Main article: Female political leaders in Islam and in Muslim-majority countries
According to a Sunni hadith, Muhammad said that people with a female ruler will never be successful.[84] It has, however, been noted that in Islamic history women including Aisha, Ume Warqa, and Samra Binte Wahaib took part in political activities.[81]
There are few other historical role models for Muslim women as leaders.[citation needed] Razia Sultana was the short-lived third major independent Muslim ruler of the Sultanate of Delhi in India[85] and the Mamluk queen Shajarat ad-Durr ruled for a few years in Egypt.[86]
There are many contemporary examples of women leading countries in which Muslims are a majority or a large minority. Remarkably, a majority of all Muslims in the world live in countries that have, at some time, elected women as their leaders.[citation needed] These countries include Indonesia,[87] Pakistan,[88] Bangladesh,[89], India, and Turkey[90].
[edit] Right to vote
Iraqi women waiting to vote in elections, 2005.
According to some scholars voting is permissible for women in Islam, as it has never been openly banned, neither in Quran nor by Sunnah.[91]
Until recently most Muslim nations were non-democratic, but most today allow their citizens to have some level of voting and control over their government. Aside from Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, all such nations allow women to vote. (Lebanon requires proof of education for women to vote.)
The history of women’s suffrage in Muslim societies is quite varied and is indicative of the varied traditions and values that are present within the Muslim world. Azerbaijan has had women's suffrage since 1918, but many Arab states did not have women's suffrage until the last ten years. It is to be noted that even where women's suffrage as a right is technically present, women may not as a practical matter be able to vote.[citation needed]
When compared with First World Western countries, Muslim countries on the whole have lagged in granting women suffrage.[92] Because the majority of Muslim countries are developing nations, it might be more appropriate to compare suffrage rights with those of other developing nations. See also Timeline of women's suffrage.
[edit] Women as slaves and prisoners of war
Main articles: Islam and Slavery and Ma malakat aymanukum and sex
The major juristic schools of Islam traditionally accepted the institution of slavery[93]; slaves were referred to in the Qur'an as ma malakat aymanukum, a circumlocution meaning "that which your right hand possesses". Slavery is today widely viewed to be opposed to Islamic principles of justice and equality[94] and has been outlawed in almost all of the Muslim world.[95] However, slavery claiming the sanction of Islam still exists in Chad, Mauritania and Sudan.[96][97]
Several aspects of the master-slave relationship are of particular interest in the case where a slave is female. The mahr (dowry) that is given for marriage to a female slave is taken by her owner[98] (since property of slaves is generally owned by the master[99]), whereas all other women possess it absolutely for themselves.[100] The Qur'an also permits sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage.[101][102]
[edit] Modern debate and movements relating to the status of women in Islam
Using the Qur'an (the holy book of Islam), the hadith (the sayings of Mohammed) and the lives of prominent women in the early period of Muslim history as sources, conservatives have argued that existing gender asymmetries are divinely ordained, while feminists have emphasized the more egalitarian ideals of early Islam. For both Islamic feminists and anti-feminists, Islamic doctrine has continued to be the basis for discourse regarding women's rights.[103] Whether perceived injustice is according to Islamic religious doctrine or culture is disputed.
[edit] Conservatives
Conservatives reject the assertion that different laws prescribed for men and women imply that men are more valuable than women, arguing that the only criterion of value before God is piety.[citation needed][104] Some Islamic scholars justify the different religious laws for men and women by referring to the biological and sociological differences between men and women[citation needed]. For example, regarding the inheritance law which states that women’s share of inheritance is half that of men, the imam Ali ibn Musa Al-reza reasoned that at the time of marriage a man has to pay something to his prospective bride, and that men are responsible for both their wives' and their own expenses but women have no such responsibility.[105]
[edit] Islamism
The nebulous revivalist movement termed Islamism is one of the most dynamic movements within Islam in the 20th and 21st centuries. The experience of women in Islamist states has been strikingly varied.
Iran has been, since its revolution in 1979, a theocracy. The position of women in Iran today is complex. Iranian Islamists are ideologically committed to inequality for women in inheritance and other areas of the civil code and to segregation of the sexes. However, women legislators are included in the Majlis of Iran (parliament),[106] and women comprise 60% of university students.[107]
Women in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan faced treatment condemned by the international community.[108] The Taliban's stated aim was to create "secure environments where the chasteness and dignity of women may once again be sacrosanct." [109] The treatment of women was based on Pashtunwali beliefs that prescribe for women to live in purdah (seclusion). [110] Women were forced to wear the burqa in public,[111] not allowed to work,[112] and not allowed to be educated after the age of eight.[113] They were not allowed to be treated by male doctors unless accompanied by a male chaperon, which led to illnesses remaining untreated. They faced public flogging [114] and execution for violations of the Taliban's laws. [115][116]
[edit] Liberals
Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a former Muslim and prominent critic of the role of women in Islam.
Liberals have denounced treatment of Muslim women as essentialist, ahistorical and lacking in class perspectives with respect to Islamic injunctions (fatwa).[117][118][103] They have asserted that "women are not treated as equal members" of Muslim societies [119] and have criticized Islam for condoning this treatment.[120][121] Some critics have made gone so far as to make allegations of gender apartheid due to women's status.[122]
At least one critic has alleged that Western academics, especially feminists, have ignored the plight of Muslim women to be "politically correct."[123]
[edit] Liberal movements within Islam
Main article: Liberal movements within Islam
Islam contains conservative and liberal strands, as do other religions. Ijtihad, a form of critical thinking, is one way Muslims are creating a more progressive form of Islam, which includes a consideration of the status of women.[124]
Islamic feminism is a form of feminism that aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of sex or gender, in public and private life.[125] Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilised secular and western feminist discourses and recognise the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement[126]. Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in Islam, and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, hadith and sharia towards the creation of a more equal and just society.[127]
[edit] See also
Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam
Female Circumcision in Islam
Female figures in the Qur'an
Role of women in religion
Women in Arab societies
Women's rights
[edit] Works cited
Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994.
Levy, Reuben (1969). The Social Structure of Islam. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Yvonne Haddad and John Esposito. Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Published 1998. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 0-19-511357-8.
[edit] References
^ a b c d e Haddad and Esposito, pp. xii
^ a b c The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2002), AltaMira Press, ISBN 0-7591-0189-2, pp.476.
^ Malise Ruthven (2000). Islam: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-950469-5, p.93
^ Amin Ahsan Islahi, Tadabbur-i-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 2, (Lahore: Faran Foundation, 1986), p. 278
^ Maan, Bashir and Alastair McIntosh. "'The whole house of Islam, and we Christians with them...': An interview with 'the Last Orientalist' - the Rev Prof William Montgomery Watt." Internet version from www.alastairmcintosh.com. Also published in The Coracle, the Iona Community, summer 2000, issue 3:51, pp. 8-11.
^ Carla Makhlouf Obermeyer. "Islam, Women, and Politics: The demography of Arab countries", Population and Development Review, Vol. 18, No. 1. (Mar., 1992), pp. 33-60
^ Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power, New York, Columbia University Press
^ See also Qur'an 2:228: "And it is for the women to act as they (the husbands) act by them, in all fairness; but the men are a step above them."
^ See also Qur'an 4:34: "Men are in charge of women, because Allah hath made the one of them to excel the other, and because they spend of their property (for the support of women). So good women are the obedient, guarding in secret that which Allah hath guarded ..."
^ Ahmed, L., 1992, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate, New Haven, Yale University Press.
^ Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power, New York, Columbia University Press
^ "Revere God and the wombs (that bore you)." Qur'an, 4:1
^ a b http://www.quran.org.uk/out.php?LinkID=93
^ "When news is brought to one of them, of (the birth of) a female (child), his face darkens, and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people, because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain it on (sufferance and) contempt, or bury it in the dust? Ah! what an evil (choice) they decide on?" Qur'an, 16:58-59
^ a b c Jamal Badawi, The status of women in Islam
^ See also Qur'an 4:25: "Wed them with permission of their folk, and give them Mahr according what is reasonable ..."
^ See also Qur'an 4:34: "Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means..."
^ "From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large,-a determinate share."Sura 4:7[1]
^ See also Qur'an 4:11: "For example, where the deceased has both male and female children, a son's share is double that of a daughter's."
^ See also Qur'an 4:126: "Additionally, the sister of a childless man inherits half of his property upon his death, while a brother of a childless woman inherits all of her property."
^ http://www.mopw.gov.pk/ulema/proceedings/Page%20291%20to%20Page%20314.pdf
^ "Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient..." Qur'an, 4:34
^ Haddad/Esposito pg.41
^ Assaad, R., 2003, Gender & Employment: Egypt in Comparative Perspective, in Doumato, E.A. & Posusney, M.P., Women and Globalization in the Arab Middle East: Gender, Economy and Society, Colorado, Lynne Rienner Publishers
^ http://www.prb.org/datafind/prjprbdata/wcprbdata6.asp?DW=DR&SL=&SA=1
^ a b c d e f g Ibn Rushd. Bidayatu’l-Mujtahid, 1st ed., vol. 4, (Beirut: Daru’l-Ma‘rifah, 1997), p. 311.
^ See also Sahih Bukhari 1:6:301: "Is not the evidence of two women equal to the witness of one man?" They replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her intelligence."
^ See also Sahih Bukhari 3:48:826: "Isn't the witness of a women equal to half that of a man?" The women said "yes". He said "This is because of the deficiency of the women's mind."
^ See also Sahih Muslim 1:142: "O womenfolk, you should ask for forgiveness for I saw you in bulk amongst the dwellers of Hell. A wise lady said: Why is it, Allah’s Apostle, that women comprise the bulk of the inhabitants of Hell? The Prophet observed: ‘You curse too much and are ungrateful to your spouses. You lack common sense, fail in religion and rob the wisdom of the wise.’ Upon this the woman remarked: What is wrong with our common sense? The Prophet replied, ‘Your lack of common sense can be determined from the fact that the evidence of two women is equal to one man. That is a proof."
^ See also Qur'an 2:282: "... and call in to witness from among your men two witnesses; but if there are not two men, then one man and two women from among those whom you choose to be witnesses, so that if one of the two errs, the second of the two may remind the other...".
^ According to Averroes, a 12th-century Maliki, "There is a general consensus among the jurists that in financial transactions a case stands proven by the testimony of a just man and two women on the basis of [this] verse." (Ibn Rushd. Bidayatu’l-Mujtahid, 1st ed., vol. 4, (Beirut: Daru’l-Ma‘rifah, 1997), p. 311).
^ Ghamidi. Burhan:The Law of Evidence. Al-Mawrid
^ Ibn al-Qayyim, I‘lam al-Muwwaqi‘in, 1st ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Jayl, 1973), 91.
^ Half of a Man!, Renaissance - Monthly Islamic Journal, 14(7), July 2004
^ Ordinary Muslims also challenge the extent of the application of the verse; see, e.g., http://www.submission.org/women/faq8.html.
^ http://www.twf.org/Library/WomenICJ.html#witness
^ a b Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, The Penal Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid
^ Asifa Quraishi. "Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective," in Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America, Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). The author also argues that this traditional view may be inconsistent with the requirements outlined in the Qur'an.
^ See, e.g., http://www.geo.tv/zs/Zina_article_Final.pdf.
^ According to Ibn Qudamah, "This is the view of Omar, al-Zuhri, Qatadah, al-Thawri, al-Shafi'i, and others and we do not know anyone who has departed from this view." (Although this seems to indicate unanimity, Ibn Qudamah himself uses the language "overwhelming majority.") Muwaffaq al-Din Ibn Qudamah, al-Mughni (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi n.d), Vol. 10, p. 159, quoted in http://www.geo.tv/zs/Zina_article_Final.pdf.
^ Sahih Abu Dawud Book 38, Number 4366 retrieved from: http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/038.sat.html
^ http://www.islam-democracy.org/documents/pdf/6th_Annual_Conference-JulieNorman.pdf
^ See, e.g., http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=1369 and Asifa Quraishi. "Her Honor: An Islamic Critique of the Rape Laws of Pakistan from a Woman-Sensitive Perspective," in Windows of Faith: Muslim Women Scholar-Activists in North America, Gisela Webb (Ed.), Syracuse University Press (June 2000). Mentioned in verses 5:33-34
^ Kecia Ali: Honor Killings, Illicit Sex, and Islamic Law, The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, June 10, 2003
^ "Q&A: Honour killings explained", BBC News, 2004-06-22. Retrieved on 2007-07-09.
^ For instance, the practice is little known in Indonesia, the world's most populous Islamic country, as well as in parts of West Africa with majority-Muslim populations.http://www.nuradeen.com/Reflections/ElementsOfSufism3.htm
^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3828675.stm
^ http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1244406,00.html
^ "Slay not your children, fearing a fall to poverty, We shall provide for them and for you. Lo! the slaying of them is great sin." Qur'an, 17:31
^ "[W]hen the girl-child that was buried alive is asked for what sin she was slain ..." Qur'an, 81:8-9
^ See also Qur'an 30:21: "And among His signs is this, that He has created for you mates from among yourselves, that you may dwell in tranquillity with them; and He has put love and mercy between you. Verily in that are signs for those who reflect."
^ "Ibni `Abbaas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (sws), and she reported that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God gave her the choice [between accepting the marriage or invalidating it]." Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal 2469. "...the girl said: "Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted to let women know that parents have no right [to force a husband on them]". Sunan Ibn Maja 1873.
^ "O you who believe! You are forbidden to inherit women against their will." 4:19
^ Levy, p.106
^ Sahih Bukhari 5:58:234 and Sahih Muslim 8:3311
^ D. A. Spellberg; Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40
^ Friedmann (2003), p. 37
^ Friedmann (2003), p. 35
^ And now, people, you acquire certain rights over your wives, and they do you. The right you acquire over them is that they should not let someone you hate sleep in your beds, and not to commit a manifest obscenity [or adultery]. If they do [commit it], then God has given you permission to leave them alone in their beds and give them a beating, though not too hard. If they give over, they get their provision and clothing with kindness; I command you good-will for your wives, for they are your captives(1) that do not own anything of their own. You have taken them by the faithfulness of God, and made their sexual organs lawful for you by the words of God. Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-nabawiyya (Cairo, 1963), 4:251.
^ For example, "If they [husband and wife] desire to wean the child by mutual consent and after consultation, there is no blame on them." Qur'an, 2:233
^ Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir of Ibn Kathir”, Al-Firdous Ltd., London, 2000, 50-53
^ a b Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, Chapter:The Social Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid
^ Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, Chapter: The Social Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid. The pertinent Qur'an verse is "And if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, marry [their mothers] that are lawful to you, two two, three three, four four; but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly [with them], then only one, or those which your right hands possess. That will be more suitable to prevent you from doing injustice. And give these women their dowers also the way dowers are given; but if they, of their own good pleasure, remit any part of it to you, take it and consume it gladly." Qur'an, 4:3-4.
^ Eleanor Abdella Doumato, in Helen Chapin Metz (ed.), Saudi Arabia: a country study (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1993), Ch. 2. (This source might also be found at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sa0038) )
^ "And those who launch a charge against chaste women, and produce not four witnesses (to support their allegations), - flog them with eighty stripes; and reject their evidence ever after: for such men are wicked transgressors."Qur'an, 24:4
^ http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=1&ID=1993&CATE=143
^ [2]
^ [3]
^ a b John L. Esposito(2002), p.99, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam, Oxford University Press
^ Natana J. Delong-Bas(2004), p.123, Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad, Oxford University Press
^ The Situation of Women in Afghanistan - United Nations Report
^ See collection of Qur'an translations, compared verse by verse
^ Women in Islam: Hijab, Ibrahim B. Syed, 2001
^ John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path,, p.98, 3rd Edition. Oxford University Press, 2005.
^ "For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast, for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in God's praise, for them has God prepared forgiveness and great reward." 33:35 and "Their Lord responds to them: "I will not let the deeds of any doer among you go to waste, male or female - you are both the same in that respect ..." 3:195
^ "Enter into Paradise, you and your wives, with delight." 43:70
^ See also Sahih Bukhari 1:6:301: "Isn't it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her menses?" The women replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her religion."
^ `Â’ishah relates that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “I do not permit a woman in her menses or a person in a state of major ritual impurity into the mosque.” [Sunan Abî Dâwûd, Sunan Ibn Mâjah, Sunan al-Bayhaqî, and Sahîh Ibn Khuzaymah]
^ http://shams.za.org/access.htm
^ a b c http://www.themodernreligion.com/women/recognition.html
^ a b Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Religious leadership of women in Islam, April 24, 2005, Daily Times, Pakistan
^ Sunan Abu Dawud, 2:591
^ Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, (Bayrut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al- ‘Arabi, n.d.) vol.5, 3:1375
^ Sahih Bukhari 5:59:709
^ http://www.crescentlife.com/thisthat/feminist%20muslims/razia.htm
^ http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/shajarat.htm
^ http://www.time.com/time/pow/printout/0,8816,169130,00.html
^ Ali A. Mazrui, Pretender to Universalism: Western Culture in a Globalizing Age, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volume 21, Number 1, April 2001
^ http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/11/06women_Khaleda-Zia_JSK7.html
^ http://womenshistory.about.com/od/cillertansu/Tansu_iller.htm
^ Islam Online.net
^ See Timeline of women's suffrage, Majority Muslim countries, and Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries
^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
^ Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery
^ Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam
^ Segal, Ronald (2001). Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 206 and 222.
^ http://www.africaspeaks.com/articles/070699.html
^ Levy, p.114
^ Levy, p.76
^ Levy, p.114
^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112-113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses 23:1-6: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
^ a b
^ Part of the verse (3:36) that literally reads as “the male is not like the female” is usually used to show that the value of the female is greater than or at least equal to the value of the male. (The text is not clear as to whether this quote is supposed to be from God or from the mother of Mary, but the meaning of the phrase is clear in its context.)[citation needed]
^ Quoted in Grand Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi, Tafsir Nemoneh, on verse 4:12.
^ See, e.g., Tahereh Saffarzadeh, Masumeh Ebtekar, Marzieh Dabbaq and Zahra Rahnavard.
^ http://www.parstimes.com/women/women_universities.html
^ M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110. For an example, see http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm.
^ Nancy Hatch Dupree. 'Afghan Women under the Taliban' in William Maley (2001). Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban. London: Hurst and Company, pp145-166.
^ Peter Marsden (1998). The Taliban: War, religion and the new order in Afghanistan. London: Zed Books Ltd, pp88-101.
^ M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110.
^ http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3ae6a84d0.html
^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm
^ A woman being flogged in public.
^ "The Taliban's War on Women"PDF (857 KiB), Physicians for Human Rights, August 1998.
^ "100 Girls' Schools in Afghan Capital Are Ordered Shut", The New York Times, June 17, 1998.
^ Nikki R. Reddie, "Problems in the study of Middle Eastern Woman", International Journal of Middle East Studies, 10 (1979), pp. 225-240
^ Judith E. Tukker, "Problems in the Histiography of women in the Middle-East - The case of nineteenth century Egypt", International Journal of Middle-East studies, 15 (1963), pp.321-336
^ http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2005&country=6825. See also Timothy Garton Ash. "Islam in Europe", The New York Review of Books, 10-05-2006. and http://www.ntpi.org/html/liberationofwomen.html.
^ Timothy Garton Ash. "Islam in Europe", The New York Review of Books, 10-05-2006.
^ http://www.ntpi.org/html/liberationofwomen.html
^ Feminist author Phyllis Chesler, for example, asserted: "Islamists oppose the ideals of dignity and equality for women by their practice of gender apartheid. This is a system which includes some, if not all, of the following human-rights violations: female genital mutilation, veiling and hijab, purdah, normalized daughter- and wife-beating, arranged (child) marriage, often to first cousins, polygamy, honor murder, the imprisonment, torture, beheading, stoning to death, and hanging of rape victims, suspected prostitutes, and feminist dissidents — especially in Iran today."Phyllis Chesler interview
^ "Such Islamist misogynists have many Western allies and apologists...Among them are many academic and establishment feminists who are also apologists for Islamic religious and gender apartheid and for the international trafficking in women and girls. In this, they are feminism's worst enemies. For example, many academic feminists fear that any serious critique of veiling, purdah, or polygamy might be slandered as "racist." They are right. These days, telling the truth about indigenous Islamic barbarism towards women and men is quickly branded as "politically incorrect" and dismissed as "racist" and "imperialist" arrogance."[4]
^ See, e.g., http://www.asmasociety.org/wise/article_ijtihad.pdf
^ http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1426&fuseaction=topics.event_summary&event_id=42775
^ http://www.feminismeislamic.org/eng/index.htm
^ http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/569/cu1.htm
[edit] Further reading
John Esposito and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-195-11357-8
Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate, Yale University Press, 1992
Valentine Moghadam (ed), Gender and National Identity.
Nadje Al-Ali and Nicola Pratt, Women in Iraq: Beyond the Rhetoric, Middle East Report, No. 239, Summer 2006
Karen Armstrong, The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, London, HarperCollins/Routledge, 2001
Wikipedia
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